The Wealth and Color of Off-Campus Recruiting by Public Research Universities
Karina Gracia Salazar
Doctoral Candidate
Center for the Study of Higher Education
Department of Educational Policy Studies and Practice
College of Education
Recruiting Visits to Tucson
University of Alabama, University of Colorado Boulder, University of Georgia
Motivation
Policy discourse about access to public research universities
The problem: access to public research universities
- Historical mission of social mobility for state residents
- Concern about growing socioeconomic and racial inequality in access
Mainstream policy discourse about access inequality
- "Achievement gap", "under-matching"; place responsibility on students, K-12 schools
- Universities pledge commitment to access via policies and statements (e.g., no-loan financial aid policies)
- Problem with policy discourse: decades of research finds policy adoption a symbolic effort to appease stakeholders (e.g., Davis, 2005)
Motivation
Analyze recruiting to understand university enrollment priorities
Alternative explanation for access inequality
- University enrollment priorities biased against poor students and/or Communities of Color
Why study university recruiting behavior
- Universities spend substantial resources identifying and recruiting prospects (Noel-Levitz, 2018)
- Internal resource allocation better indicator of organizational priorities than rhetoric, policies
- Knowing which student populations targeted by recruiting efforts indicates enrollment priorities
Analyze off-campus recruiting visits (e.g., visit to a high school) as a means of gaining insight about university enrollment priorities
- Two empirical studies:
- (1) ¿Suburbios o Barrios? Off-Campus Recruiting by Public Research Universities
- Similarities and differences in off-campus recruiting patterns across universities
- (2) Sub-Metropolitan Spatial Redlining in Public University Recruitment
- Spatial, in-depth exploration of racial bias in out-of-state recruiting visits
- (1) ¿Suburbios o Barrios? Off-Campus Recruiting by Public Research Universities
Data Collection
The broader off-campus recruiting research project
Data collection
- Method
- Web-scrape admissions websites
- Public records requests
- Criteria to be included in data collection
- Post visits on admissions websites
- Organizational type
- Data collection sample (larger project)
- 54 public research; 49 private; 42 liberal arts
- Data collection period
- 1/1/2017 to 12/31/2017
- Ongoing data collection with larger sample
- Secondary Data
- ACS; NCES; EdFacts; State DOE
Sample webpage with travel schedule
Empirical study #1
¿Suburbios o Barrios? Off-Campus Recruiting by Public Research Universities
Research problem
- Research on recruiting practices can transform access inequality policy discourse
- But few empirical studies analyze recruiting behavior
Research aim
- Systematically analyze off-campus recruiting visits by public research universities
Research question
- What are the similarities and differences in off-campus recruiting patterns across universities?
Analytic focus
- Income, race; academic achievement; in-state vs. out-of-state
Literature review
Scholarship on recruiting
Scholarship analyzing college perspective (Stevens, 2007)
- Important for relationships with prospects, counselors at "feeder" schools
- Focus on visiting affluent schools and private schools
Scholarship analyzing perspective of high school students (Holland, 2019)
- Which universities visit affects student decisions
- First-gen, students of color swayed to apply and enroll to colleges that make them feel wanted
- High income students concerned with prestige
Research gap: we don't know which universities visit which schools, communities
Theoretical framework
Expectations about similarities and differences in recruiting behavior
Resource dependence theory (RDT) (Pfeffer and Salancik, 1978)
- Organizations are sensitive to demands from providers of critical resources
- Universities with weak state funding
- More visits to affluent out-of-state, affluent in-state
- Universities with small/declining "college age" population
- More out-of-state visits
Academic Capitalism (AC) (Slaughter and Rhoades, 2004)
- RDT assumes restoring state funding would compel universities to de-emphasize nonresident enrollment/recruiting
- AC suggests pursuit of revenue displaces public-good mission for market logic
- Recruiting by universities with similar external conditions can differ depending to what extent "market logic" ideology is adopted
Research methods
Research design and analyses
Quantitative multiple case study research design (Korzilius, 2010)
- Quantitative data collection and quantitative analyses
- Analyze each case separately, rather than pooling across cases as in large-N, random sample design
Data analysis (Eisenhardt, 1989; Pratt, Rockmann, and Kaufmann, 2006)
- "Within-case" analyses of recruiting patterns
- Simple descriptive statistics (e.g., counts), static visualizations, interactive maps
- Linear probability models controlling for other factors impacting probability of receiving visit
- "Cross-case" analyses
- Consolidate first-order findings from "within-case" into broader empirical themes
Research methods
Analysis sample
| Alabama | UC Berkeley | UC Irvine | Georgia | UMass | Nebraska | Population (N = 80) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Academic Profile | |||||||
| US News & World Report Ranking | 103 | 20 | 39 | 56 | 74 | 111 | 94 |
| 25th Percentile SAT/ACT Score | 1,053 | 1,316 | 1,078 | 1,165 | 1,135 | 1,027 | 1,085 |
| 75th Percentile SAT/ACT Score | 1,351 | 1,527 | 1,334 | 1,360 | 1,332 | 1,262 | 1,300 |
| Enrollment | |||||||
| Total Enrolled Freshmen | 7,559 | 6,252 | 6,551 | 5,433 | 4,679 | 4,860 | 4,957 |
| % Out-of-State Freshmen | 68.1% | 24.4% | 25.8% | 12.3% | 26.9% | 29.9% | 25.4% |
| % Pell Recipients | 17.0% | 19.4% | 37.8% | 20.3% | 21.5% | 23.9% | 24.0% |
| Tuition and Fees | |||||||
| In-State Tuition + Fees | $10,701 | $13,807 | $13,654 | $11,890 | $15,301 | $8,725 | $11,026 |
| Out-of-State Tuition + Fees | $27,544 | $41,076 | $40,924 | $30,502 | $32,914 | $23,558 | $29,441 |
| Revenues | |||||||
| Net Tuition Revenue | $493,397,152 | $852,825,280 | $534,855,840 | $463,142,400 | $382,249,088 | $227,792,208 | $379,065,984 |
| % Total Revenue from Tuition | 39.0% | 31.2% | 17.5% | 29.6% | 30.6% | 20.3% | 26.3% |
| Total State Appropriations | $158,247,648 | $411,178,720 | $329,859,744 | $445,318,208 | $353,021,024 | $286,740,832 | $267,926,000 |
| Appropriation per Student | $4,450 | $9,992 | $9,548 | $11,879 | $12,578 | $12,561 | $7,903 |
| % Total Revenue from State Appropriations | 12.5% | 15.1% | 10.8% | 28.5% | 28.2% | 25.5% | 16.7% |
| Total State Revenue | $190,197,808 | $492,486,464 | $348,427,008 | $479,996,896 | $374,387,616 | $295,350,848 | $290,634,448 |
| State Revenue per Student | $5,348 | $11,967 | $10,086 | $12,804 | $13,340 | $12,938 | $8,970 |
| % Total Revenue from State (All Sources) | 15.0% | 18.0% | 11.4% | 30.7% | 30.0% | 26.3% | 19.4% |
Note: Author calculations based on 2016-2017 IPEDS. Population of universities includes universities categorized as Highest Research Activity by 2015 Carnegie Classification. The University of Alabama is the only institution in the study sample that is not classified as Highest Research Activity.
Table of Contents
- National Overview
- In-State Results
- Out-of-State Results
National Overview
In-State Results
State Map
In-State Results
State Figures
In-State Results
Metro Area Map
In-State Results
Metro Area Figures
Out-of-State Results
Top Visited Metro Areas
Out-of-State Results
Out-of-State Results
Metro Area Map
Out-of-State Results
Metro Area Figures
Out-of-State Results
Metro Area Map
Out-of-State Results
Metro Area Figures
Cross-university results
Number of events by type and in-state, out-of-state
| Out-of-State | In-State | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Total Events | Total | Pub HS | Priv HS | Other | Total | Pub HS | Priv HS | CC | Other | |||
| Alabama | 4,349 | 3,957 | 2,312 | 934 | 711 | 392 | 157 | 54 | 124 | 57 | ||
| UC Berkeley | 906 | 420 | 188 | 134 | 98 | 486 | 269 | 35 | 121 | 61 | ||
| UC Irvine | 939 | 172 | 77 | 40 | 55 | 767 | 330 | 20 | 322 | 95 | ||
| Georgia | 885 | 587 | 287 | 233 | 67 | 298 | 203 | 69 | 1 | 25 | ||
| UMass | 1,137 | 784 | 504 | 230 | 50 | 353 | 238 | 62 | 36 | 17 | ||
| Nebraska | 1,421 | 875 | 646 | 104 | 125 | 546 | 445 | 55 | 20 | 26 | ||
| NC State | 371 | 124 | 72 | 20 | 32 | 247 | 157 | 3 | 55 | 32 | ||
| Rutgers | 1,629 | 954 | 560 | 231 | 163 | 675 | 477 | 72 | 89 | 37 | ||
| Stony Brook | 1,101 | 666 | 496 | 107 | 63 | 435 | 326 | 39 | 33 | 37 | ||
| Arkansas | 1,013 | 788 | 483 | 204 | 101 | 225 | 162 | 21 | 16 | 26 | ||
| Cincinnati | 1,369 | 815 | 491 | 204 | 120 | 554 | 408 | 79 | 22 | 45 | ||
| CU Boulder | 1,568 | 1,102 | 607 | 362 | 133 | 466 | 256 | 17 | 154 | 39 | ||
| Kansas | 1,419 | 1,004 | 613 | 213 | 178 | 415 | 304 | 22 | 28 | 61 | ||
| Pittsburgh | 1,233 | 906 | 559 | 210 | 137 | 327 | 211 | 51 | 37 | 28 | ||
| S.Carolina | 1,495 | 1,245 | 676 | 328 | 241 | 250 | 197 | 22 | 2 | 29 | ||
Note: Totals for schools include multiple visits to unique schools.
Cross-university results, out-of-state visits
Small multiple map of recruiting visits
Cross-university results, out-of-state visits
Descriptive statistics for public high school visits
| Alabama | UC Berkeley | UC Irvine | Georgia | UMass | Nebraska | NC State | Rutgers | Stony Brook | Arkansas | Cincinnati | CU Boulder | Kansas | Pittsburgh | S.Carolina | ||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | |
| Number of High Schools | 1,711 | 13,255 | 178 | 10,893 | 74 | 7,521 | 249 | 9,333 | 496 | 8,797 | 420 | 6,003 | 70 | 5,185 | 445 | 6,635 | 407 | 3,613 | 329 | 6,301 | 401 | 8,717 | 575 | 12,820 | 438 | 8,090 | 433 | 7,316 | 576 | 11,510 |
| Miles from University | 831 | 836 | 1,933 | 1,917 | 1,155 | 1,805 | 920 | 808 | 675 | 1,102 | 374 | 548 | 339 | 437 | 717 | 1,003 | 196 | 506 | 406 | 630 | 406 | 720 | 1,139 | 1,116 | 519 | 685 | 411 | 614 | 658 | 806 |
| Grade 12 Enrollment | 384 | 169 | 459 | 183 | 471 | 191 | 490 | 201 | 380 | 208 | 391 | 144 | 403 | 201 | 428 | 214 | 332 | 215 | 427 | 186 | 430 | 199 | 431 | 186 | 458 | 172 | 406 | 188 | 431 | 192 |
| Median Household Income ($000) | $90 | $60 | $104 | $62 | $93 | $66 | $102 | $62 | $115 | $64 | $85 | $61 | $121 | $67 | $113 | $66 | $110 | $66 | $87 | $59 | $101 | $64 | $115 | $63 | $96 | $62 | $114 | $64 | $105 | $63 |
| Percent Free or Reduced Lunch | 30.4 | 51.7 | 23.1 | 49.2 | 29.3 | 46.9 | 22.6 | 51.2 | 21.4 | 51.7 | 31.1 | 46.6 | 21.5 | 49.2 | 22.9 | 52.0 | 22.8 | 48.8 | 31.4 | 55.8 | 28.3 | 50.9 | 20.5 | 49.5 | 26.1 | 49.6 | 21.0 | 50.0 | 22.6 | 50.5 |
| Percent Enrollment by Race | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Black, Latinx, Native American | 30.3 | 38.0 | 30.4 | 37.4 | 29.9 | 35.5 | 29.6 | 40.9 | 24.5 | 43.6 | 27.1 | 28.8 | 28.7 | 37.1 | 26.2 | 45.6 | 24.0 | 37.0 | 32.5 | 44.3 | 28.9 | 40.5 | 25.4 | 37.6 | 25.4 | 38.2 | 24.3 | 39.7 | 26.7 | 37.9 |
| White | 59.9 | 56.8 | 51.7 | 57.6 | 44.5 | 58.4 | 56.1 | 53.4 | 61.6 | 50.1 | 63.9 | 67.2 | 58.7 | 57.2 | 57.1 | 48.2 | 64.7 | 58.0 | 57.8 | 50.1 | 57.1 | 53.6 | 59.2 | 56.5 | 63.6 | 56.1 | 61.6 | 55.1 | 61.9 | 56.5 |
| Black | 13.8 | 16.3 | 15.0 | 18.1 | 8.1 | 15.7 | 10.3 | 17.1 | 8.5 | 17.7 | 10.2 | 11.6 | 15.9 | 22.1 | 10.1 | 15.4 | 11.8 | 22.1 | 10.8 | 16.4 | 14.6 | 16.7 | 6.6 | 14.9 | 9.8 | 11.7 | 10.7 | 18.7 | 12.0 | 16.3 |
| Latinx | 16.1 | 20.5 | 15.1 | 18.1 | 21.3 | 18.3 | 19.0 | 22.3 | 15.7 | 25.0 | 16.0 | 16.1 | 12.6 | 14.7 | 15.9 | 29.6 | 12.0 | 14.6 | 19.2 | 26.0 | 14.0 | 23.2 | 18.5 | 21.3 | 15.0 | 24.3 | 13.3 | 20.4 | 14.4 | 21.0 |
| Native American | 0.4 | 1.2 | 0.3 | 1.2 | 0.5 | 1.5 | 0.3 | 1.5 | 0.2 | 0.8 | 0.9 | 1.1 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.6 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 2.5 | 1.9 | 0.2 | 0.6 | 0.3 | 1.3 | 0.5 | 2.2 | 0.2 | 0.6 | 0.3 | 0.6 |
| Asian | 6.7 | 2.8 | 14.1 | 2.6 | 16.4 | 3.4 | 11.2 | 3.2 | 11.5 | 3.9 | 6.1 | 1.7 | 9.7 | 3.4 | 13.7 | 3.9 | 9.0 | 2.8 | 6.2 | 3.1 | 10.8 | 3.7 | 12.0 | 3.3 | 7.6 | 3.2 | 11.4 | 2.8 | 8.2 | 3.3 |
| Other Race | 3.2 | 2.4 | 3.8 | 2.3 | 9.1 | 2.7 | 3.1 | 2.6 | 2.4 | 2.5 | 2.9 | 2.3 | 2.9 | 2.3 | 3.0 | 2.3 | 2.3 | 2.3 | 3.5 | 2.4 | 3.2 | 2.2 | 3.4 | 2.7 | 3.4 | 2.5 | 2.7 | 2.4 | 3.1 | 2.4 |
| School Type | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 0/1 is a Charter School | 0.04 | 0.11 | 0.06 | 0.08 | 0.03 | 0.10 | 0.05 | 0.10 | 0.02 | 0.10 | 0.02 | 0.07 | 0.01 | 0.07 | 0.02 | 0.11 | 0.02 | 0.07 | 0.04 | 0.10 | 0.03 | 0.10 | 0.03 | 0.11 | 0.01 | 0.12 | 0.01 | 0.06 | 0.03 | 0.10 |
| 0/1 is a Magnet School | 0.09 | 0.05 | 0.18 | 0.06 | 0.14 | 0.06 | 0.12 | 0.06 | 0.09 | 0.07 | 0.03 | 0.04 | 0.07 | 0.06 | 0.08 | 0.08 | 0.07 | 0.09 | 0.05 | 0.05 | 0.11 | 0.06 | 0.09 | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.03 | 0.08 | 0.06 | 0.10 | 0.06 |
| 0/1 is a Regular School | 0.88 | 0.84 | 0.76 | 0.86 | 0.84 | 0.85 | 0.83 | 0.84 | 0.89 | 0.84 | 0.95 | 0.89 | 0.91 | 0.87 | 0.90 | 0.81 | 0.90 | 0.84 | 0.91 | 0.85 | 0.86 | 0.85 | 0.88 | 0.84 | 0.95 | 0.85 | 0.91 | 0.87 | 0.88 | 0.84 |
| Locale | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| In a City | 0.25 | 0.25 | 0.45 | 0.24 | 0.51 | 0.25 | 0.41 | 0.24 | 0.22 | 0.28 | 0.31 | 0.18 | 0.17 | 0.26 | 0.29 | 0.31 | 0.14 | 0.22 | 0.30 | 0.24 | 0.25 | 0.27 | 0.32 | 0.25 | 0.33 | 0.22 | 0.19 | 0.26 | 0.21 | 0.26 |
| In a Suburb | 0.58 | 0.23 | 0.48 | 0.26 | 0.39 | 0.32 | 0.52 | 0.29 | 0.68 | 0.28 | 0.46 | 0.17 | 0.64 | 0.35 | 0.64 | 0.31 | 0.73 | 0.39 | 0.49 | 0.20 | 0.63 | 0.28 | 0.62 | 0.27 | 0.56 | 0.22 | 0.70 | 0.28 | 0.68 | 0.28 |
| In a Town | 0.04 | 0.15 | 0.02 | 0.14 | 0.03 | 0.13 | 0.00 | 0.13 | 0.02 | 0.12 | 0.10 | 0.17 | 0.03 | 0.11 | 0.01 | 0.11 | 0.01 | 0.12 | 0.07 | 0.15 | 0.03 | 0.13 | 0.01 | 0.14 | 0.03 | 0.16 | 0.02 | 0.12 | 0.01 | 0.13 |
| In a Rural Area | 0.13 | 0.37 | 0.05 | 0.36 | 0.07 | 0.30 | 0.07 | 0.34 | 0.08 | 0.31 | 0.14 | 0.48 | 0.16 | 0.27 | 0.07 | 0.28 | 0.11 | 0.27 | 0.14 | 0.41 | 0.09 | 0.32 | 0.05 | 0.34 | 0.08 | 0.40 | 0.08 | 0.33 | 0.09 | 0.33 |
Note: Schools that satisfied the following criteria were included in the sample: offers grades 9-12 and enrolls at least ten students in each grade; located in the 50 U.S. states, the District of Columbia, or land regulated by the Bureau of Indian Affairs; is not a special education school, alternative school, virtual school, or independent school. Non-visited schools include only out-of-state schools in states that received at least one high school visit.
Cross-university results, out-of-state visits
Probability of out-of-state public high school receiving a visit
| Alabama | UC Berkeley | UC Irvine | Georgia | UMass | Nebraska | NC State | Rutgers | Stony Brook | Arkansas | Cincinnati | CU Boulder | Kansas | Pittsburgh | S.Carolina | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Income (ref=<$50k) | |||||||||||||||
| $50k-$74k | 0.004 (0.004) | -0.003 (0.002) | -0.001 (0.002) | -0.004 (0.003) | -0.011*** (0.003) | 0.001 (0.005) | -0.001 (0.002) | -0.011** (0.004) | -0.020** (0.007) | 0.002 (0.004) | 0.001 (0.003) | -0.008*** (0.002) | -0.003 (0.004) | -0.010** (0.003) | -0.001 (0.003) |
| $75k-$99k | 0.081*** (0.009) | 0.006 (0.004) | 0.006 (0.004) | 0.008 (0.006) | 0.022** (0.007) | 0.049*** (0.010) | 0.005 (0.005) | 0.019* (0.008) | 0.016 (0.013) | 0.044*** (0.010) | 0.030*** (0.007) | 0.024*** (0.005) | 0.051*** (0.008) | 0.032*** (0.008) | 0.031*** (0.006) |
| $100k-$149k | 0.207*** (0.014) | 0.060*** (0.009) | 0.042*** (0.008) | 0.068*** (0.011) | 0.178*** (0.013) | 0.191*** (0.025) | 0.047*** (0.009) | 0.173*** (0.014) | 0.185*** (0.021) | 0.184*** (0.023) | 0.115*** (0.012) | 0.170*** (0.011) | 0.183*** (0.017) | 0.153*** (0.014) | 0.155*** (0.012) |
| $150k-$199k | 0.415*** (0.041) | 0.193*** (0.045) | 0.033 (0.020) | 0.168*** (0.041) | 0.444*** (0.049) | 0.225* (0.089) | 0.166*** (0.047) | 0.393*** (0.050) | 0.433*** (0.057) | 0.066 (0.047) | 0.276*** (0.045) | 0.501*** (0.044) | 0.231*** (0.051) | 0.480*** (0.050) | 0.314*** (0.043) |
| $200k+ | 0.481*** (0.075) | 0.241** (0.089) | 0.005 (0.005) | 0.362*** (0.108) | 0.654*** (0.078) | 0.084 (0.129) | 0.104 (0.077) | 0.398*** (0.089) | 0.482*** (0.120) | 0.398** (0.141) | 0.248*** (0.075) | 0.766*** (0.066) | 0.385** (0.118) | 0.550*** (0.095) | 0.265*** (0.079) |
| BL, LX, NA Enrollment (ref=<20%) | |||||||||||||||
| 20-39% | 0.030*** (0.008) | -0.002 (0.004) | -0.004 (0.004) | 0.003 (0.005) | -0.016* (0.008) | 0.023* (0.009) | 0.002 (0.006) | 0.001 (0.010) | -0.010 (0.015) | 0.026** (0.008) | 0.012 (0.007) | 0.007 (0.005) | 0.028*** (0.007) | -0.001 (0.008) | 0.026*** (0.007) |
| 40-59% | -0.011 (0.008) | -0.015*** (0.004) | 0.002 (0.005) | -0.011* (0.005) | -0.030*** (0.008) | 0.002 (0.011) | -0.012* (0.005) | -0.038*** (0.010) | -0.028 (0.016) | -0.00004 (0.008) | 0.012 (0.008) | -0.015** (0.006) | -0.016* (0.007) | -0.020* (0.009) | -0.010 (0.007) |
| 60-79% | -0.047*** (0.009) | -0.013** (0.005) | -0.004 (0.005) | -0.027*** (0.005) | -0.040*** (0.008) | 0.011 (0.012) | 0.007 (0.008) | -0.048*** (0.011) | -0.054** (0.017) | -0.007 (0.009) | -0.0004 (0.009) | -0.036*** (0.006) | -0.032*** (0.008) | -0.040*** (0.008) | -0.021** (0.007) |
| 80-89% | -0.042*** (0.011) | -0.021*** (0.005) | -0.011* (0.005) | -0.035*** (0.006) | -0.056*** (0.008) | -0.023 (0.014) | 0.005 (0.009) | -0.070*** (0.011) | -0.078*** (0.020) | -0.022* (0.009) | -0.007 (0.009) | -0.052*** (0.006) | -0.034*** (0.009) | -0.042*** (0.010) | -0.028*** (0.007) |
| 90%+ | -0.073*** (0.008) | -0.027*** (0.004) | -0.011** (0.004) | -0.036*** (0.005) | -0.062*** (0.007) | -0.006 (0.011) | -0.0004 (0.005) | -0.075*** (0.010) | -0.087*** (0.015) | -0.026** (0.008) | -0.012 (0.007) | -0.051*** (0.005) | -0.032*** (0.007) | -0.050*** (0.008) | -0.031*** (0.006) |
| # Math Proficient Students (ref=<50) | |||||||||||||||
| 50-99 | -0.004 (0.005) | -0.003 (0.002) | -0.0005 (0.003) | -0.003 (0.002) | 0.007 (0.005) | 0.061*** (0.009) | -0.004* (0.002) | -0.012* (0.005) | 0.003 (0.013) | -0.003 (0.006) | -0.006 (0.004) | -0.005 (0.003) | -0.005 (0.005) | -0.004 (0.005) | -0.004 (0.003) |
| 100-199 | 0.028*** (0.008) | -0.0004 (0.004) | -0.008 (0.004) | 0.003 (0.004) | 0.001 (0.007) | 0.070*** (0.013) | 0.0003 (0.004) | -0.004 (0.009) | -0.014 (0.014) | 0.018 (0.010) | -0.011 (0.007) | 0.0002 (0.006) | -0.014 (0.008) | -0.006 (0.007) | -0.007 (0.005) |
| 200-299 | 0.056*** (0.014) | 0.005 (0.007) | -0.014* (0.007) | 0.022* (0.008) | 0.011 (0.011) | 0.078*** (0.021) | 0.012 (0.007) | 0.019 (0.014) | 0.003 (0.020) | 0.029 (0.018) | -0.037*** (0.011) | -0.006 (0.010) | -0.015 (0.015) | 0.011 (0.013) | -0.011 (0.010) |
| 300-399 | 0.053** (0.019) | 0.005 (0.010) | -0.017 (0.010) | 0.045*** (0.013) | 0.032* (0.015) | -0.013 (0.025) | 0.014 (0.011) | -0.022 (0.017) | 0.022 (0.025) | 0.088*** (0.027) | -0.024 (0.016) | -0.001 (0.014) | -0.028 (0.021) | 0.007 (0.017) | 0.033* (0.015) |
| 400+ | 0.137*** (0.020) | 0.011 (0.011) | -0.028** (0.009) | 0.004 (0.012) | 0.022 (0.013) | -0.098*** (0.023) | 0.030** (0.011) | -0.001 (0.016) | -0.043* (0.019) | 0.003 (0.026) | -0.011 (0.017) | -0.034** (0.013) | -0.149*** (0.015) | -0.060*** (0.016) | 0.068*** (0.016) |
| # G12 Students (ref=<50) | |||||||||||||||
| 50-99 | 0.006 (0.004) | 0.001 (0.002) | 0.006** (0.002) | -0.001 (0.002) | -0.005 (0.004) | 0.006 (0.005) | -0.003 (0.002) | -0.001 (0.004) | 0.014 (0.009) | 0.014*** (0.004) | 0.001 (0.003) | 0.004 (0.002) | 0.014*** (0.003) | -0.004 (0.004) | 0.001 (0.002) |
| 100-199 | 0.015** (0.005) | -0.0004 (0.002) | 0.009** (0.003) | -0.002 (0.003) | 0.002 (0.005) | 0.026** (0.008) | -0.001 (0.004) | -0.001 (0.006) | 0.016 (0.011) | 0.032*** (0.006) | 0.006 (0.005) | -0.001 (0.003) | 0.036*** (0.006) | -0.003 (0.006) | 0.001 (0.003) |
| 200-299 | 0.075*** (0.009) | 0.001 (0.004) | 0.018*** (0.005) | -0.007 (0.004) | 0.017* (0.008) | 0.065*** (0.014) | -0.012* (0.005) | 0.030** (0.010) | 0.065*** (0.016) | 0.043*** (0.010) | 0.024*** (0.007) | 0.012* (0.005) | 0.076*** (0.010) | 0.014 (0.009) | 0.018** (0.006) |
| 300-399 | 0.162*** (0.013) | 0.013* (0.007) | 0.031*** (0.007) | 0.014 (0.008) | 0.019 (0.010) | 0.143*** (0.020) | 0.010 (0.008) | 0.080*** (0.014) | 0.085*** (0.019) | 0.078*** (0.014) | 0.063*** (0.010) | 0.042*** (0.008) | 0.148*** (0.014) | 0.056*** (0.013) | 0.049*** (0.009) |
| 400-499 | 0.198*** (0.016) | 0.040*** (0.009) | 0.031*** (0.009) | 0.046*** (0.011) | 0.012 (0.012) | 0.190*** (0.024) | 0.008 (0.011) | 0.086*** (0.016) | 0.138*** (0.025) | 0.105*** (0.018) | 0.135*** (0.015) | 0.071*** (0.011) | 0.200*** (0.017) | 0.096*** (0.018) | 0.058*** (0.012) |
| 500+ | 0.201*** (0.017) | 0.059*** (0.012) | 0.075*** (0.013) | 0.094*** (0.012) | 0.048*** (0.013) | 0.283*** (0.028) | 0.016 (0.013) | 0.125*** (0.017) | 0.125*** (0.026) | 0.124*** (0.018) | 0.149*** (0.016) | 0.128*** (0.013) | 0.249*** (0.016) | 0.175*** (0.022) | 0.126*** (0.015) |
| Locale (ref=suburb) | |||||||||||||||
| City | -0.011 (0.008) | 0.029*** (0.006) | 0.020*** (0.005) | 0.035*** (0.006) | -0.007 (0.007) | 0.029* (0.014) | 0.003 (0.005) | 0.021* (0.009) | -0.0001 (0.013) | -0.004 (0.010) | -0.006 (0.007) | 0.026*** (0.006) | 0.019* (0.009) | 0.0003 (0.008) | -0.007 (0.006) |
| Rural | -0.049*** (0.008) | 0.003 (0.004) | 0.006* (0.003) | -0.001 (0.004) | -0.045*** (0.007) | -0.024* (0.010) | 0.007 (0.005) | -0.031*** (0.008) | -0.047*** (0.013) | -0.039*** (0.010) | -0.018** (0.006) | -0.023*** (0.005) | -0.040*** (0.008) | -0.031*** (0.007) | -0.024*** (0.006) |
| Town | -0.051*** (0.008) | 0.006 (0.004) | 0.004 (0.003) | 0.001 (0.004) | -0.037*** (0.006) | -0.030** (0.011) | 0.008 (0.005) | -0.021** (0.007) | -0.048*** (0.012) | -0.031** (0.010) | -0.013* (0.006) | -0.015*** (0.004) | -0.040*** (0.008) | -0.020** (0.007) | -0.024*** (0.005) |
| School Type (ref=regular school) | |||||||||||||||
| Charter | 0.017* (0.007) | 0.006 (0.004) | -0.005 (0.003) | 0.004 (0.005) | -0.005 (0.005) | -0.005 (0.009) | -0.001 (0.004) | 0.006 (0.007) | 0.006 (0.015) | 0.044*** (0.009) | 0.032*** (0.006) | -0.010* (0.004) | 0.028*** (0.006) | -0.001 (0.007) | 0.012* (0.005) |
| Magnet | 0.014 (0.013) | 0.028*** (0.008) | 0.014* (0.007) | -0.0002 (0.009) | 0.025* (0.010) | -0.013 (0.015) | -0.006 (0.008) | -0.011 (0.011) | 0.036* (0.017) | -0.012 (0.012) | 0.031** (0.011) | 0.017 (0.009) | -0.024 (0.014) | 0.007 (0.011) | 0.006 (0.009) |
| Distance (in 10 miles) | -0.0004*** (0.0001) | -0.0001* (0.00002) | -0.0001*** (0.00003) | -0.00005 (0.00004) | -0.0002*** (0.00003) | -0.003*** (0.0002) | -0.001*** (0.0001) | -0.0002*** (0.00005) | -0.002*** (0.0001) | -0.001*** (0.0001) | -0.001*** (0.00005) | -0.0003*** (0.00004) | -0.002*** (0.0001) | -0.0004*** (0.00005) | -0.0004*** (0.00004) |
| Constant | 0.073*** (0.010) | 0.009 (0.007) | 0.011 (0.007) | 0.008 (0.006) | 0.080*** (0.009) | 0.146*** (0.014) | 0.020* (0.008) | 0.059*** (0.009) | 0.136*** (0.016) | 0.080*** (0.012) | 0.053*** (0.008) | 0.048*** (0.007) | 0.108*** (0.010) | 0.060*** (0.009) | 0.043*** (0.007) |
| Observations | 14,966 | 11,071 | 7,595 | 9,582 | 9,293 | 6,423 | 5,255 | 7,080 | 4,020 | 6,630 | 9,118 | 13,395 | 8,528 | 7,749 | 12,086 |
| Akaike Inf. Crit. | 4,098.966 | -15,443.180 | -14,152.570 | -9,137.670 | -3,464.868 | -1,616.831 | -8,194.420 | -1,519.028 | 795.540 | -2,687.272 | -4,444.550 | -8,207.670 | -3,973.770 | -2,627.812 | -5,393.591 |
Note: *p<0.05; **p<0.01; ***p<0.001; Dependent Variable: Received a recruiting visit (0/1); Robust standard errors in parentheses; Schools that satisfied the following criteria were included in the sample: offers grades 9-12 and enrolls at least ten students in each grade; located in the 50 U.S. states, the District of Columbia, or land regulated by the Bureau of Indian Affairs; is not a special education school, alternative school, virtual school, or independent school. Non-visited schools include only out-of-state schools in states that received at least one high school visit.
Cross-university results, out-of-state visits
Actual versus Proportional Visits to Out-of-State High Schools
| Number of Visits | Percentage of Visits | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Actual | Proportional | Actual | Proportional | ||||||
| Public HS | Private HS | Public HS | Private HS | Public HS | Private HS | Public HS | Private HS | ||
| Alabama | 1,711 | 681 | 1,942 | 450 | 72% | 28% | 81% | 19% | |
| UC Berkeley | 178 | 130 | 250 | 58 | 58% | 42% | 81% | 19% | |
| UC Irvine | 74 | 37 | 89 | 22 | 67% | 33% | 80% | 20% | |
| Georgia | 249 | 192 | 354 | 87 | 56% | 44% | 80% | 20% | |
| UMass | 496 | 218 | 564 | 150 | 69% | 31% | 79% | 21% | |
| Nebraska | 420 | 66 | 420 | 66 | 86% | 14% | 86% | 14% | |
| NC State | 70 | 19 | 69 | 20 | 79% | 21% | 77% | 23% | |
| Rutgers | 445 | 188 | 498 | 135 | 70% | 30% | 79% | 21% | |
| Stony Brook | 407 | 83 | 371 | 119 | 83% | 17% | 76% | 24% | |
| Arkansas | 329 | 144 | 391 | 82 | 70% | 30% | 83% | 17% | |
| Cincinnati | 401 | 167 | 457 | 111 | 71% | 29% | 80% | 20% | |
| CU Boulder | 575 | 327 | 732 | 170 | 64% | 36% | 81% | 19% | |
| Kansas | 438 | 150 | 497 | 91 | 74% | 26% | 85% | 15% | |
| Pittsburgh | 433 | 172 | 481 | 124 | 72% | 28% | 79% | 21% | |
| S.Carolina | 576 | 285 | 692 | 169 | 67% | 33% | 80% | 20% | |
Note: Schools that satisfied the following criteria were included in the sample: offers grades 9-12 and enrolls at least ten students in each grade; located in the 50 U.S. states, the District of Columbia, or land regulated by the Bureau of Indian Affairs; is not special education school, an alternative school, or a virtual school. Non-visited schools include only out-of-state schools in states that received at least one high school visit.
Cross-university results, out-of-state visits
Descriptive statistics for private high school visits
| Alabama | UC Berkeley | UC Irvine | Georgia | UMass | Nebraska | NC State | Rutgers | Stony Brook | Arkansas | Cincinnati | CU Boulder | Kansas | Pittsburgh | S.Carolina | ||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | |
| Number of High Schools | 681 | 2,788 | 130 | 2,444 | 37 | 1,852 | 192 | 2,152 | 218 | 2,254 | 66 | 951 | 19 | 1,535 | 188 | 1,723 | 83 | 1,206 | 144 | 1,256 | 167 | 2,059 | 327 | 2,780 | 150 | 1,414 | 172 | 1,828 | 285 | 2,660 |
| Grade 12 Enrollment | 125 | 55 | 123 | 64 | 188 | 69 | 134 | 62 | 149 | 63 | 169 | 60 | 161 | 70 | 156 | 64 | 144 | 66 | 123 | 59 | 145 | 64 | 145 | 62 | 164 | 60 | 145 | 62 | 140 | 63 |
| Percent Enrollment by Race | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Black, Latinx, Native American | 17.0 | 21.1 | 16.4 | 21.0 | 16.7 | 20.6 | 13.5 | 22.8 | 16.1 | 23.0 | 14.9 | 20.1 | 21.1 | 22.5 | 16.9 | 24.8 | 17.2 | 23.8 | 16.6 | 22.0 | 14.6 | 20.8 | 17.5 | 21.4 | 16.1 | 21.3 | 15.3 | 21.9 | 15.0 | 22.0 |
| White | 71.0 | 68.4 | 69.8 | 70.0 | 49.4 | 68.7 | 74.5 | 65.8 | 69.4 | 65.2 | 76.5 | 71.2 | 69.8 | 68.0 | 68.2 | 62.3 | 69.8 | 66.2 | 73.8 | 65.7 | 73.9 | 67.3 | 65.9 | 66.8 | 73.0 | 65.6 | 71.9 | 68.4 | 74.3 | 66.7 |
| Black | 7.1 | 11.0 | 7.8 | 11.4 | 5.6 | 10.8 | 5.9 | 11.3 | 6.6 | 11.3 | 4.0 | 9.6 | 15.1 | 13.3 | 8.9 | 10.9 | 7.1 | 14.3 | 7.4 | 9.7 | 8.3 | 10.4 | 6.5 | 10.7 | 6.0 | 8.8 | 8.1 | 11.1 | 7.2 | 11.1 |
| Latinx | 9.5 | 9.6 | 8.1 | 9.2 | 9.6 | 9.3 | 7.2 | 11.2 | 9.1 | 11.3 | 9.1 | 10.1 | 5.8 | 9.0 | 7.7 | 13.6 | 9.8 | 9.3 | 8.6 | 11.8 | 6.1 | 10.0 | 10.5 | 10.2 | 9.5 | 12.0 | 6.8 | 10.5 | 7.4 | 10.6 |
| Native American | 0.4 | 0.5 | 0.6 | 0.4 | 1.4 | 0.6 | 0.5 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 1.8 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.4 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.5 | 0.6 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.3 |
| Asian | 7.2 | 6.9 | 8.2 | 5.7 | 15.5 | 6.9 | 6.8 | 7.3 | 8.6 | 7.7 | 5.1 | 5.6 | 5.4 | 5.9 | 9.3 | 8.5 | 9.2 | 6.4 | 6.0 | 8.0 | 7.7 | 7.7 | 9.2 | 7.6 | 6.0 | 8.6 | 8.3 | 6.2 | 6.7 | 7.3 |
| Other Race | 4.9 | 3.6 | 5.6 | 3.3 | 18.5 | 3.8 | 5.2 | 4.1 | 5.9 | 4.1 | 3.5 | 3.1 | 3.7 | 3.5 | 5.6 | 4.4 | 3.9 | 3.6 | 3.5 | 4.4 | 3.8 | 4.2 | 7.3 | 4.1 | 4.9 | 4.5 | 4.6 | 3.5 | 4.0 | 4.0 |
| Locale | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| In a City | 0.49 | 0.38 | 0.57 | 0.38 | 0.54 | 0.38 | 0.60 | 0.38 | 0.47 | 0.41 | 0.62 | 0.42 | 0.32 | 0.37 | 0.43 | 0.45 | 0.25 | 0.29 | 0.65 | 0.44 | 0.49 | 0.43 | 0.52 | 0.41 | 0.57 | 0.41 | 0.41 | 0.41 | 0.47 | 0.41 |
| In a Suburb | 0.41 | 0.38 | 0.36 | 0.40 | 0.30 | 0.45 | 0.33 | 0.41 | 0.42 | 0.40 | 0.29 | 0.33 | 0.68 | 0.45 | 0.50 | 0.40 | 0.66 | 0.49 | 0.29 | 0.30 | 0.44 | 0.37 | 0.42 | 0.39 | 0.41 | 0.34 | 0.52 | 0.40 | 0.45 | 0.40 |
| In a Town | 0.02 | 0.07 | 0.01 | 0.06 | 0.03 | 0.04 | 0.00 | 0.06 | 0.01 | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.10 | 0.00 | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.00 | 0.04 | 0.00 | 0.08 | 0.02 | 0.05 | 0.01 | 0.06 | 0.02 | 0.09 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.01 | 0.05 |
| In a Rural Area | 0.09 | 0.17 | 0.06 | 0.16 | 0.14 | 0.13 | 0.07 | 0.15 | 0.10 | 0.14 | 0.08 | 0.14 | 0.00 | 0.13 | 0.06 | 0.12 | 0.08 | 0.17 | 0.06 | 0.18 | 0.05 | 0.15 | 0.06 | 0.14 | 0.01 | 0.16 | 0.06 | 0.15 | 0.07 | 0.14 |
Note: Schools that satisfied the following criteria were included in the sample: offers grades 9-12 and enrolls at least ten students in each grade; located in the 50 U.S. states, the District of Columbia, or land regulated by the Bureau of Indian Affairs; is not special education school, an alternative school, or a virtual school. Non-visited schools include only out-of-state schools in states that received at least one high school visit.
Cross-university results, in-state visits
Descriptive statistics for public high school visits
| Alabama | UC Berkeley | UC Irvine | Georgia | UMass | Nebraska | NC State | Rutgers | Stony Brook | Arkansas | Cincinnati | CU Boulder | Kansas | Pittsburgh | S.Carolina | ||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | |
| Number of High Schools | 113 | 228 | 244 | 1,160 | 232 | 1,172 | 173 | 245 | 216 | 132 | 217 | 30 | 143 | 361 | 253 | 147 | 229 | 927 | 124 | 113 | 353 | 464 | 181 | 132 | 209 | 108 | 185 | 467 | 119 | 90 |
| Percent of High Schools | 33.1 | 66.9 | 17.4 | 82.6 | 16.5 | 83.5 | 41.4 | 58.6 | 62.1 | 37.9 | 87.9 | 12.1 | 28.4 | 71.6 | 63.2 | 36.8 | 19.8 | 80.2 | 52.3 | 47.7 | 43.2 | 56.8 | 57.8 | 42.2 | 65.9 | 34.1 | 28.4 | 71.6 | 56.9 | 43.1 |
| Miles from University | 98 | 101 | 171 | 250 | 131 | 216 | 85 | 98 | 61 | 65 | 112 | 149 | 87 | 103 | 31 | 35 | 35 | 144 | 131 | 137 | 119 | 157 | 61 | 108 | 118 | 168 | 131 | 155 | 65 | 80 |
| Grade 12 Enrollment | 204 | 97 | 446 | 272 | 467 | 269 | 313 | 207 | 214 | 158 | 101 | 27 | 239 | 169 | 259 | 186 | 318 | 118 | 132 | 66 | 199 | 83 | 257 | 53 | 135 | 31 | 288 | 134 | 264 | 127 |
| Number Proficient-Math | 53 | 14 | 143 | 74 | 129 | 77 | 141 | 71 | 179 | 116 | 58 | 14 | 109 | 76 | 105 | 59 | 303 | 103 | 51 | 20 | 183 | 80 | 91 | 16 | 36 | 6 | 205 | 76 | 226 | 112 |
| Median Household Income ($000) | $54 | $44 | $86 | $67 | $69 | $71 | $61 | $50 | $95 | $82 | $63 | $62 | $52 | $53 | $95 | $86 | $103 | $64 | $46 | $45 | $67 | $53 | $75 | $61 | $65 | $57 | $79 | $59 | $53 | $45 |
| Percent Free or Reduced Lunch | 44.3 | 60.3 | 50.6 | 58.4 | 61.6 | 56.2 | 55.5 | 68.0 | 32.9 | 48.2 | 37.3 | 44.2 | 53.3 | 50.9 | 35.1 | 34.0 | 37.3 | 55.6 | 59.2 | 65.6 | 40.1 | 53.6 | 36.8 | 46.1 | 42.9 | 47.5 | 31.5 | 51.8 | 49.8 | 65.7 |
| Percent Enrollment by Race | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Black, Latinx, Native American | 33.0 | 38.8 | 54.9 | 59.7 | 68.4 | 56.9 | 50.1 | 52.2 | 21.8 | 33.6 | 13.8 | 15.6 | 38.8 | 41.6 | 42.6 | 40.5 | 37.7 | 45.0 | 24.7 | 26.8 | 22.0 | 21.1 | 37.7 | 34.6 | 17.5 | 14.2 | 15.7 | 25.6 | 42.1 | 52.5 |
| White | 64.3 | 59.8 | 25.6 | 28.9 | 17.5 | 30.5 | 43.1 | 43.7 | 70.4 | 60.9 | 83.4 | 82.0 | 55.9 | 52.6 | 46.7 | 53.2 | 48.7 | 50.0 | 72.5 | 71.1 | 72.4 | 75.0 | 56.1 | 61.7 | 77.4 | 82.6 | 78.3 | 71.0 | 54.1 | 44.8 |
| Black | 27.2 | 33.4 | 6.1 | 6.5 | 8.6 | 6.0 | 40.3 | 42.2 | 8.6 | 12.4 | 2.1 | 3.8 | 24.4 | 27.8 | 19.5 | 17.9 | 13.9 | 21.8 | 16.9 | 21.1 | 18.4 | 17.2 | 4.3 | 2.9 | 4.2 | 2.6 | 11.4 | 17.7 | 36.1 | 47.4 |
| Latinx | 4.7 | 4.2 | 48.2 | 51.9 | 59.2 | 49.7 | 9.6 | 9.7 | 13.0 | 20.9 | 9.6 | 7.8 | 11.8 | 12.7 | 22.9 | 22.4 | 23.5 | 22.5 | 7.0 | 5.0 | 3.4 | 3.7 | 32.5 | 30.9 | 12.1 | 10.2 | 4.2 | 7.8 | 5.7 | 4.9 |
| Native American | 1.2 | 1.3 | 0.6 | 1.2 | 0.6 | 1.2 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 2.1 | 4.0 | 2.7 | 1.1 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.4 | 0.7 | 0.8 | 0.6 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 1.0 | 0.8 | 1.2 | 1.4 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 0.3 |
| Asian | 1.4 | 0.4 | 15.3 | 8.0 | 11.1 | 8.9 | 4.0 | 1.5 | 5.4 | 2.9 | 1.0 | 0.5 | 1.9 | 2.4 | 9.7 | 5.2 | 12.4 | 3.9 | 1.2 | 0.9 | 2.0 | 0.7 | 2.9 | 1.2 | 1.5 | 0.5 | 4.0 | 1.7 | 1.3 | 0.7 |
| Other Race | 1.2 | 1.0 | 4.2 | 3.4 | 3.0 | 3.7 | 2.8 | 2.6 | 2.4 | 2.5 | 1.7 | 1.9 | 3.4 | 3.4 | 1.0 | 1.1 | 1.2 | 1.2 | 1.6 | 1.3 | 3.7 | 3.2 | 3.2 | 2.5 | 3.6 | 2.7 | 2.0 | 1.7 | 2.5 | 2.0 |
| School Type | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 0/1 is a Charter School | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.07 | 0.31 | 0.06 | 0.31 | 0.05 | 0.04 | 0.10 | 0.09 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.02 | 0.08 | 0.04 | 0.06 | 0.00 | 0.04 | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.18 | 0.08 | 0.19 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.13 | 0.05 | 0.10 |
| 0/1 is a Magnet School | 0.04 | 0.03 | 0.12 | 0.09 | 0.15 | 0.09 | 0.09 | 0.08 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.03 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.19 | 0.14 |
| 0/1 is a Regular School | 0.96 | 0.97 | 0.81 | 0.60 | 0.78 | 0.60 | 0.86 | 0.88 | 0.90 | 0.91 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 0.96 | 0.88 | 0.96 | 0.94 | 0.96 | 0.94 | 0.93 | 0.94 | 0.98 | 0.82 | 0.91 | 0.80 | 0.99 | 0.99 | 0.97 | 0.87 | 0.76 | 0.77 |
| Locale | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| In a City | 0.19 | 0.10 | 0.46 | 0.41 | 0.44 | 0.41 | 0.16 | 0.20 | 0.15 | 0.20 | 0.08 | 0.07 | 0.13 | 0.28 | 0.13 | 0.08 | 0.31 | 0.47 | 0.08 | 0.11 | 0.18 | 0.22 | 0.36 | 0.20 | 0.13 | 0.06 | 0.12 | 0.23 | 0.15 | 0.13 |
| In a Suburb | 0.19 | 0.06 | 0.47 | 0.36 | 0.50 | 0.36 | 0.42 | 0.27 | 0.67 | 0.64 | 0.04 | 0.00 | 0.16 | 0.19 | 0.78 | 0.76 | 0.62 | 0.12 | 0.08 | 0.04 | 0.43 | 0.18 | 0.31 | 0.11 | 0.07 | 0.01 | 0.66 | 0.27 | 0.35 | 0.20 |
| In a Town | 0.14 | 0.13 | 0.04 | 0.10 | 0.03 | 0.11 | 0.17 | 0.16 | 0.02 | 0.04 | 0.17 | 0.07 | 0.17 | 0.11 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.10 | 0.33 | 0.07 | 0.14 | 0.17 | 0.15 | 0.11 | 0.26 | 0.10 | 0.11 | 0.14 | 0.13 | 0.14 |
| In a Rural Area | 0.49 | 0.72 | 0.03 | 0.13 | 0.03 | 0.13 | 0.25 | 0.36 | 0.16 | 0.12 | 0.71 | 0.87 | 0.54 | 0.41 | 0.08 | 0.12 | 0.05 | 0.31 | 0.51 | 0.78 | 0.25 | 0.42 | 0.18 | 0.59 | 0.54 | 0.83 | 0.10 | 0.36 | 0.37 | 0.52 |
Note: Schools that satisfied the following criteria were included in the sample: offers grades 9-12 and enrolls at least ten students in each grade; located in the 50 U.S. states, the District of Columbia, or land regulated by the Bureau of Indian Affairs; is not a special education school, alternative school, virtual school, or independent school.
Cross-university results, in-state visits
Regression: probability of in-state public high school receiving a visit
| Alabama | UC Berkeley | UC Irvine | Georgia | UMass | Nebraska | NC State | Rutgers | Stony Brook | Arkansas | Cincinnati | CU Boulder | Kansas | Pittsburgh | S.Carolina | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Income (ref=<$50k) | |||||||||||||||
| $50k-$74k | -0.043 (0.057) | 0.079*** (0.021) | -0.056* (0.024) | -0.058 (0.062) | 0.181 (0.103) | -0.020 (0.076) | -0.131** (0.042) | -0.153 (0.106) | -0.025 (0.021) | 0.038 (0.078) | 0.090* (0.035) | 0.147* (0.060) | 0.079 (0.070) | 0.007 (0.034) | 0.019 (0.076) |
| $75k-$99k | 0.016 (0.117) | 0.114*** (0.029) | -0.059* (0.030) | -0.010 (0.115) | 0.114 (0.111) | -0.115 (0.107) | 0.081 (0.102) | -0.140 (0.114) | -0.023 (0.035) | 0.144 (0.274) | 0.319*** (0.051) | 0.164* (0.077) | 0.254*** (0.073) | 0.203*** (0.056) | 0.177 (0.125) |
| $100k-$149k | 0.097* (0.042) | -0.092* (0.041) | 0.096 (0.133) | 0.206 (0.112) | -0.049 (0.104) | -0.145 (0.135) | -0.067 (0.121) | 0.112*** (0.031) | 0.419*** (0.064) | 0.129 (0.085) | 0.264** (0.093) | 0.323*** (0.074) | 0.270 (0.142) | ||
| $150k-$199k | 0.352*** (0.097) | -0.251*** (0.062) | 0.431*** (0.118) | 0.288* (0.141) | 0.131 (0.146) | 0.347*** (0.087) | 0.422*** (0.126) | ||||||||
| $200k+ | -0.099 (0.131) | -0.292*** (0.056) | -0.625*** (0.137) | 0.192 (0.156) | -0.009 (0.175) | ||||||||||
| BL, LX, NA Enrollment (ref=<20%) | |||||||||||||||
| 20-39% | -0.046 (0.061) | 0.005 (0.044) | 0.020 (0.032) | 0.045 (0.078) | 0.024 (0.085) | 0.052 (0.056) | -0.157** (0.059) | 0.079 (0.072) | 0.165*** (0.038) | -0.157 (0.084) | 0.089 (0.058) | -0.021 (0.052) | 0.016 (0.070) | 0.034 (0.062) | 0.227* (0.104) |
| 40-59% | -0.089 (0.084) | 0.069 (0.046) | 0.087* (0.034) | 0.062 (0.083) | 0.033 (0.119) | -0.172 (0.133) | -0.064 (0.073) | 0.189* (0.093) | 0.143* (0.055) | -0.123 (0.110) | 0.054 (0.072) | 0.051 (0.076) | -0.009 (0.107) | -0.043 (0.073) | -0.002 (0.103) |
| 60-79% | 0.078 (0.103) | 0.046 (0.046) | 0.118** (0.038) | 0.132 (0.098) | 0.053 (0.132) | -0.136 (0.200) | -0.068 (0.077) | 0.252** (0.087) | 0.063 (0.061) | -0.041 (0.191) | 0.016 (0.082) | -0.032 (0.079) | -0.003 (0.116) | -0.179* (0.085) | -0.012 (0.130) |
| 80-89% | 0.051 (0.131) | 0.069 (0.049) | 0.124** (0.047) | -0.070 (0.111) | -0.088 (0.146) | -0.272 (0.144) | -0.117 (0.107) | 0.073 (0.154) | -0.009 (0.060) | -0.320 (0.171) | 0.035 (0.079) | 0.130 (0.108) | 0.132 (0.097) | -0.107 (0.082) | 0.230 (0.130) |
| 90%+ | -0.241*** (0.065) | 0.166*** (0.049) | 0.192*** (0.043) | 0.250* (0.103) | -0.172 (0.152) | -0.217 (0.298) | -0.108 (0.086) | 0.100 (0.113) | -0.116* (0.055) | -0.136 (0.168) | 0.244*** (0.074) | -0.054 (0.103) | 0.003 (0.067) | -0.102 (0.119) | |
| # Math Proficient Students (ref=<50) | |||||||||||||||
| 50-99 | 0.093 (0.100) | 0.006 (0.032) | 0.045 (0.036) | 0.153 (0.079) | 0.171 (0.102) | 0.064 (0.069) | 0.006 (0.061) | 0.112 (0.067) | 0.043* (0.018) | 0.222 (0.122) | 0.106* (0.053) | 0.118 (0.072) | -0.068 (0.049) | 0.006 (0.037) | -0.150 (0.134) |
| 100-199 | 0.382** (0.119) | 0.081 (0.042) | 0.037 (0.045) | 0.278** (0.098) | 0.317* (0.138) | 0.001 (0.111) | 0.071 (0.093) | 0.156* (0.077) | 0.134*** (0.039) | -0.004 (0.196) | 0.066 (0.071) | 0.153* (0.065) | -0.179* (0.071) | 0.213*** (0.056) | -0.340 (0.228) |
| 200-299 | 0.243 (0.169) | 0.129* (0.059) | 0.125* (0.062) | 0.319* (0.141) | 0.335 (0.179) | 0.001 (0.173) | 0.097 (0.148) | 0.308*** (0.085) | 0.182* (0.089) | 0.354 (0.199) | -0.024 (0.108) | 0.097 (0.087) | -0.236* (0.095) | 0.369*** (0.089) | -0.395 (0.261) |
| 300-399 | 0.049 (0.088) | 0.172 (0.093) | 0.489** (0.182) | 0.528* (0.212) | -0.096 (0.184) | 0.017 (0.197) | 0.230 (0.179) | 0.357** (0.116) | 0.126 (0.300) | -0.060 (0.130) | 0.093 (0.075) | 0.487*** (0.131) | -0.522 (0.305) | ||
| 400+ | 0.109 (0.140) | 0.231 (0.124) | 0.352 (0.220) | 0.618* (0.251) | -0.135 (0.227) | 0.611 (0.391) | 0.410*** (0.124) | 0.599*** (0.157) | 0.367 (0.343) | -0.099 (0.135) | 0.088 (0.072) | 0.548** (0.177) | -0.849* (0.374) | ||
| # G12 Students (ref=<50) | |||||||||||||||
| 50-99 | 0.165** (0.056) | -0.014 (0.019) | -0.009 (0.019) | 0.207** (0.077) | 0.150 (0.117) | 0.107 (0.087) | 0.189** (0.058) | 0.087 (0.119) | -0.029 (0.019) | 0.218** (0.080) | 0.115* (0.050) | 0.290*** (0.080) | 0.163 (0.084) | 0.058 (0.035) | 0.279* (0.132) |
| 100-199 | 0.272*** (0.064) | 0.015 (0.021) | -0.009 (0.022) | 0.191** (0.072) | 0.059 (0.135) | 0.217 (0.118) | 0.308*** (0.057) | 0.229* (0.113) | -0.045 (0.035) | 0.252* (0.116) | 0.336*** (0.071) | 0.436*** (0.098) | 0.391*** (0.071) | 0.068 (0.047) | 0.774*** (0.213) |
| 200-299 | 0.686*** (0.104) | 0.083** (0.032) | 0.046 (0.033) | 0.293*** (0.088) | -0.043 (0.163) | 0.391* (0.168) | 0.328*** (0.080) | 0.240* (0.122) | 0.022 (0.080) | 0.325 (0.166) | 0.460*** (0.097) | 0.534*** (0.100) | 0.461*** (0.081) | 0.110 (0.068) | 1.011*** (0.239) |
| 300-399 | 0.435*** (0.131) | 0.180*** (0.039) | 0.121** (0.042) | 0.401*** (0.104) | 0.061 (0.191) | 0.409* (0.190) | 0.398*** (0.105) | 0.291* (0.119) | -0.083 (0.103) | 0.611*** (0.119) | 0.554*** (0.092) | 0.554*** (0.088) | 0.142 (0.091) | 1.025*** (0.272) | |
| 400-499 | 0.480** (0.168) | 0.120** (0.041) | 0.112* (0.044) | 0.369** (0.130) | 0.050 (0.219) | 0.451* (0.186) | 0.277 (0.143) | 0.243 (0.136) | -0.279 (0.150) | 0.635** (0.195) | 0.717*** (0.128) | 0.552*** (0.099) | 0.597*** (0.098) | 0.105 (0.140) | 1.336*** (0.299) |
| 500+ | 0.760*** (0.168) | 0.195*** (0.041) | 0.185*** (0.046) | 0.265 (0.146) | -0.117 (0.320) | 0.589* (0.233) | 0.299 (0.207) | 0.276 (0.143) | -0.129 (0.168) | 0.602* (0.273) | 0.455** (0.163) | 0.498*** (0.115) | 0.665*** (0.129) | 0.268 (0.166) | 1.674*** (0.383) |
| Locale (ref=suburb) | |||||||||||||||
| City | -0.209* (0.095) | 0.006 (0.022) | -0.037 (0.024) | -0.058 (0.075) | 0.033 (0.085) | -0.020 (0.071) | -0.070 (0.063) | 0.122 (0.097) | -0.218*** (0.049) | -0.301 (0.193) | 0.023 (0.059) | 0.087 (0.061) | 0.075 (0.069) | 0.049 (0.056) | 0.055 (0.092) |
| Rural | -0.163 (0.093) | -0.041 (0.029) | -0.072* (0.031) | -0.008 (0.071) | 0.034 (0.080) | 0.273* (0.126) | 0.114* (0.056) | -0.125 (0.081) | -0.090* (0.039) | -0.044 (0.174) | -0.129** (0.044) | -0.130 (0.072) | 0.142* (0.067) | -0.173*** (0.045) | 0.007 (0.087) |
| Town | -0.213* (0.105) | -0.042 (0.032) | -0.083** (0.032) | 0.124 (0.087) | -0.130 (0.182) | 0.214 (0.128) | 0.162* (0.073) | -0.205 (0.151) | -0.119** (0.039) | 0.233 (0.165) | -0.027 (0.050) | 0.036 (0.091) | 0.229** (0.074) | -0.036 (0.058) | -0.009 (0.116) |
| School Type (ref=regular school) | |||||||||||||||
| Charter | -0.047* (0.020) | -0.071** (0.024) | 0.135 (0.116) | 0.217* (0.094) | -0.071 (0.069) | -0.063 (0.122) | 0.051 (0.034) | 0.250 (0.161) | -0.180*** (0.052) | -0.169 (0.094) | -0.401*** (0.114) | -0.072 (0.046) | 0.196 (0.130) | ||
| Magnet | 0.099 (0.129) | -0.008 (0.036) | -0.006 (0.040) | 0.024 (0.090) | -0.055 (0.092) | 0.217** (0.072) | 0.042 (0.292) | 0.354 (0.197) | 0.141 (0.140) | 0.376 (0.255) | 0.048 (0.089) | ||||
| Distance (in 10 miles) | -0.004 (0.005) | -0.007*** (0.001) | -0.0001 (0.001) | -0.002 (0.005) | -0.013 (0.010) | -0.005 (0.003) | -0.010** (0.004) | -0.006 (0.014) | -0.016*** (0.001) | 0.004 (0.006) | -0.018*** (0.002) | -0.002 (0.005) | -0.005 (0.003) | -0.013*** (0.002) | -0.036*** (0.009) |
| Constant | 0.314** (0.117) | 0.092 (0.052) | 0.062 (0.053) | -0.067 (0.125) | 0.227 (0.157) | 0.657*** (0.164) | 0.195 (0.100) | 0.352 (0.181) | 0.423*** (0.045) | 0.336 (0.193) | 0.343*** (0.065) | 0.183 (0.107) | 0.349*** (0.099) | 0.276*** (0.058) | 0.282 (0.158) |
| Observations | 341 | 1,404 | 1,404 | 418 | 348 | 247 | 504 | 400 | 1,156 | 237 | 817 | 313 | 317 | 652 | 209 |
| Akaike Inf. Crit. | 364.784 | 994.316 | 1,033.760 | 563.412 | 475.712 | 166.755 | 575.111 | 541.538 | 309.406 | 328.378 | 798.974 | 252.223 | 373.616 | 480.002 | 250.649 |
Note: *p<0.05; **p<0.01; ***p<0.001; Dependent Variable: Received a recruiting visit (0/1); Robust standard errors in parentheses; Schools that satisfied the following criteria were included in the sample: offers grades 9-12 and enrolls at least ten students in each grade; located in the 50 U.S. states, the District of Columbia, or land regulated by the Bureau of Indian Affairs; is not a special education school, alternative school, virtual school, or independent school.
Summary of results
¿Suburbios o Barrios? Off-Campus Recruiting by Public Research Universities
Out of State Recruiting
- Majority of visits are out-of-state (exceptions: UC Irvine, UC Berkeley); in populous metros
- Income bias; visits concentrated in highly affluent communities, in metropolitan areas
- Racial bias; less likely to visit schools with predominantly Black/Hispanic/Native students
- Disproportionate number of visits to private high schools
In-State Recruiting
- Variation in coverage of public high schools (e.g., Nebraska=88%; Alabama=33%)
- Income bias (most cases, but less than out-of-state) even after controlling for other factors
- Bias against schools with predominantly Black/Hispanic/Native in some cases (e.g., Alabama)
- Rural bias; in some cases even after controlling for other factors (e.g., UC Irvine)
Recruiting for Resources (RDT) or Recruiting Market Values (AC)
- RDT: Universities with the worst state funding have the most out-of-state visits (Berkeley vs. Irvine)
- AC: Cases with relatively more better environmental conditions do not have a lesser focus on out-of-state (e.g., UMass Amherst, Nebraska)
Empirical study #2
Sub-Metropolitan Spatial Redlining in Public University Recruitment
Racial inequality is grounded in the governing of space and its impact on where People of Color live (Hardy, Logan, and Parman, 2018; Rothstein, 2018; Squires, 2004)
- Forced migration of indigenous people and seizure of their ancestral lands
- Plessy v. Ferguson
- Policies and court decisions abetted "de facto" segregation after Brown v. Board of Education
- Federal and state regulatory tolerance of "reverse redlining" (i.e., predatory lending)
Geography of Opportunity (Galster and Killen, 1995)
- Communities of Color, particularly low-income communities, are likely to live in areas with limited access to critical resources needed for collective wealth and power
- e.g., fair housing, jobs, health facilities
Geography of College Opportunity (Hillman, 2016)
- Geography reinforces access inequality
- Communities of Color have the fewest four-year colleges nearby; many options are for-profit colleges (Dache-Gerbino, Kiyama, and Sapp, 2018)
Motivation
Do recruiting visits reinforce the geography of unequal college opportunity?
But how does the behavior of universities reinforce the geography of unequal college opportunity?
- Racial access inequality is grounded in the governing of (admissions) space(s)
- e.g, HBCUs, out-of-state tuition and non-resident enrollment caps, SAT/ACT (e.g., Freedle, 2003; Santelices, Wilson, 2010)
Students' college opportunities are also shaped by the (enrollment management) choices of universities (Rhoades, 2014)
- Universities are not immobile in their efforts to provide access
- Chapter 3 finds schools with greater proportions of Students of Color are less likely to get a visit
- Schools are not randomly geographically scattered; clustered within segregated Communities of Color
- Spatial discrimination linked to perpetual racial disparities in the geography of opportunity
RQ: Do recruiting efforts by public universities spatially discriminate against Communities of Color?
- Spatial distribution of out-of-state recruiting visits within the Los Angeles and Dallas MSAs
- Spatial relationships between race, income, and academic achievement
Conceptual Framework
Place-based whiteness as property
Whiteness as property (Harris, 1993)
- Law grants holders of whiteness the same privileges granted to holders of other types of property
- Reputation and Status property:
Place-based whiteness as property
- Connections between race and place
- "The inner city" vs "suburbs" or "urban schools" vs "suburban schools"
- Racial inequality and white privilege are not simply reflected in space
- Racialized and discriminatory practices are enacted through the use of place
Recruiting as a raced practice enacted via place
- Are Communities of Color equally as likely to receive a recruiting visit as white communities with comparable income and achievement characteristics?
Methods
Data analyss and case selection
Data analysis
- Sub-metropolitan created from pooled census tracts with similar racial and income characteristics
- (1) High, (2) Middle, (3) Low income POC and (4)High (5) Middle (6) Low income white sub-metropolitan areas
- Descriptive statistics and geospatial visualizations
Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) and university case selection based on purposeful sampling
- Los Angeles MSA
- University of Colorado Boulder (CU Boulder) and University of Massachusetts Amherst (UMass Amherst)
- Dallas MSA
- University of Kansas (KU) and University of Georgia (UGA)
MSA Overview
Distribution of People and Public High Schools by Sub-Metropolitan Areas
| High-Income, POC | Mid-Income, POC | Low-Income, POC | High-Income, White | Mid-Income, White | Low-Income, White | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| People | ||||||
| # of Pooled Census Tracts | 199 | 1,005 | 867 | 491 | 286 | 39 |
| Total Residents | 987,993 | 4,882,855 | 3,805,029 | 2,139,478 | 1,246,627 | 162,573 |
| Race/Ethnicity * | ||||||
| % Asian | 32 | 19 | 10 | 12 | 10 | 12 |
| % Black | 5 | 7 | 10 | 2 | 3 | 4 |
| % Latinx | 26 | 52 | 69 | 14 | 17 | 18 |
| % Native American | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.2 |
| % Multiracial | 3 | 3 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 3 |
| % White | 32 | 20 | 8 | 68 | 64 | 63 |
| Median Household Income ($000) * | $105 | $66 | $38 | $123 | $74 | $39 |
| Public High Schools * | ||||||
| # of Schools | 34 | 142 | 152 | 52 | 24 | 1 |
| Total Enrollment | 1,753 | 1,716 | 1,084 | 2,005 | 2,007 | 1,552 |
| Grade 12 Enrollment | 435 | 384 | 235 | 463 | 431 | 286 |
| # Meeting College Ready SAT Benchmark | 169 | 92 | 39 | 166 | 124 | 54 |
| % Free Reduced Lunch | 39 | 69 | 81 | 31 | 42 | 77 |
| Race/Ethnicity | ||||||
| % Asian | 25 | 12 | 4 | 12 | 11 | 6 |
| % Black | 7 | 7 | 9 | 6 | 7 | 10 |
| % Latinx | 43 | 70 | 81 | 31 | 42 | 70 |
| % Native American | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.7 | 0.5 | 0.2 |
| % White | 22 | 9 | 4 | 47 | 36 | 13 |
| School Type | ||||||
| 0/1 is a Regular School | 0.59 | 0.60 | 0.52 | 0.60 | 0.63 | 0.00 |
| 0/1 is a Magnet School | 0.15 | 0.20 | 0.13 | 0.21 | 0.29 | 1.00 |
| 0/1 is a Charter School | 0.27 | 0.20 | 0.36 | 0.20 | 0.08 | 0.00 |
Note: * indicated means across people or schools within each sub-metropolitan area. Schools that satisfied the following criteria were included in the sample: offers grades 9-12 and enrolls at least ten students in each grade; is not a special education school, alternative school, virtual school, or independent school; is an open status school and reports enrollment to the Federal Department of Education. Non-visited schools include only out-of-state schools in states that received at least one high school visit.
MSA Overview
Public High School Recruiting Visits by Sub-Metropolitan Areas
| Total | High-Income, POC | Mid-Income, POC | Low-Income, POC | High-Income, White | Mid-Income, White | Low-Income, White | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| University of Colorado-Boulder | |||||||
| # of public high schools visited % of total visited schools | 60 | 10 17% | 13 22% | 2 3% | 29 48% | 6 10% | 0 0% |
| # of public high school visits * % of total public high school visits * | 72 | 10 14% | 15 21% | 2 3% | 35 49% | 10 14% | 0 0% |
| University of Massachusetts-Amherst | |||||||
| # of public high schools visited % of total visited schools | 39 | 5 13% | 8 21% | 1 3% | 17 44% | 7 18% | 1 3% |
| # of public high school visits * % of total public high school visits * | - | - - | - - | - - | - - | - - | - - |
Note: * includes multiple visits to unique schools
University of Colorado-Boulder
Descriptive Statistics for Public High Schools Visited and Not Visited
| High-Income, POC | Mid-Income, POC | Low-Income, POC | High-Income, White | Mid-Income, White | Low-Income, White | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | |
| # of Schools | 10 | 24 | 13 | 129 | 2 | 150 | 29 | 24 | 6 | 18 | 0 | 1 |
| Grade 12 Enrollment | 443 | 412 | 549 | 374 | 316 | 236 | 557 | 377 | 606 | 398 | - | 341 |
| # Meeting SAT Benchmark | 197 | 155 | 189 | 82 | 102 | 39 | 208 | 109 | 214 | 93 | - | 54 |
| Median Household Income ($000) | $114 | $104 | $75 | $66 | $41 | $37 | $123 | $108 | $81 | $74 | - | $42 |
| % Free Reduced Lunch | 28 | 44 | 47 | 72 | 38 | 82 | 19 | 45 | 15 | 51 | - | 77 |
| Enrollment by Race/Ethnicity | ||||||||||||
| % Asian | 33 | 21 | 23 | 10 | 9 | 4 | 14 | 10 | 16 | 10 | - | 6 |
| % Black | 2 | 9 | 4 | 8 | 26 | 9 | 4 | 7 | 3 | 8 | - | 10 |
| % Latinx | 31 | 48 | 46 | 72 | 34 | 82 | 24 | 40 | 17 | 51 | - | 70 |
| % Native American | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 1 | 0.9 | 0.4 | - | 0.2 |
| % White | 31 | 18 | 23 | 7 | 25 | 4 | 54 | 38 | 58 | 28 | - | 13 |
| School Type | ||||||||||||
| 0/1 is a Regular School | 0.70 | 0.54 | 0.88 | 0.58 | 0.00 | 0.52 | 0.70 | 0.42 | 1.00 | 0.50 | - | 0.00 |
| 0/1 is a Magnet School | 0.10 | 0.17 | 0.06 | 0.21 | 0.50 | 0.12 | 0.23 | 0.21 | 0.00 | 0.39 | - | 1.00 |
| 0/1 is a Charter School | 0.20 | 0.29 | 0.06 | 0.21 | 0.50 | 0.35 | 0.07 | 0.38 | 0.00 | 0.11 | - | 0.00 |
Note: Totals are for unique school visits and will not match multiple visit totals in metro overview. Schools that satisfied the following criteria were included in the sample: offers grades 9-12 and enrolls at least ten students in each grade; is not a special education school, alternative school, virtual school, or independent school; is an open status school and reports enrollment to the Federal Department of Education.
University of Colorado-Boulder
Map
University of Massachusetts-Amherst
Descriptive Statistics for Public High Schools Visited and Not Visited
| High-Income, POC | Mid-Income, POC | Low-Income, POC | High-Income, White | Mid-Income, White | Low-Income, White | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | |
| # of Schools | 5 | 29 | 8 | 134 | 1 | 151 | 17 | 36 | 7 | 17 | 1 | 0 |
| Grade 12 Enrollment | 483 | 401 | 689 | 372 | 640 | 234 | 541 | 445 | 617 | 381 | 341 | - |
| # Meeting SAT Benchmark | 272 | 149 | 289 | 80 | 202 | 38 | 204 | 146 | 209 | 89 | 54 | - |
| Median Household Income ($000) | $117 | $105 | $77 | $66 | $46 | $37 | $127 | $111 | $76 | $75 | $42 | - |
| % Free Reduced Lunch | 11 | 44 | 33 | 72 | 72 | 81 | 13 | 39 | 24 | 50 | 77 | - |
| Enrollment by Race/Ethnicity | ||||||||||||
| % Asian | 55 | 19 | 30 | 11 | 44 | 4 | 16 | 10 | 10 | 12 | 6 | - |
| % Black | 2 | 8 | 6 | 7 | 0.7 | 9 | 4 | 6 | 3 | 8 | 10 | - |
| % Latinx | 13 | 48 | 32 | 72 | 51 | 82 | 18 | 38 | 29 | 48 | 70 | - |
| % Native American | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.3 | 0.8 | 0.7 | 0.5 | 0.2 | - |
| % White | 26 | 21 | 29 | 8 | 3 | 4 | 58 | 41 | 53 | 28 | 13 | - |
| School Type | ||||||||||||
| 0/1 is a Regular School | 1.00 | 0.52 | 0.50 | 0.60 | 1.00 | 0.52 | 0.70 | 0.53 | 0.86 | 0.53 | 0.00 | - |
| 0/1 is a Magnet School | 0.00 | 0.17 | 0.38 | 0.19 | 0.00 | 0.13 | 0.24 | 0.22 | 0.14 | 0.35 | 1.00 | - |
| 0/1 is a Charter School | 0.00 | 0.31 | 0.13 | 0.20 | 0.00 | 0.36 | 0.06 | 0.25 | 0.00 | 0.12 | 0.00 | - |
Note: Totals are for unique school visits and will not match multiple visit totals in metro overview. Schools that satisfied the following criteria were included in the sample: offers grades 9-12 and enrolls at least ten students in each grade; is not a special education school, alternative school, virtual school, or independent school; is an open status school and reports enrollment to the Federal Department of Education.
University of Massachusetts-Amherst
Map
MSA Overview
Distribution of People and Public High Schools by Sub-Metropolitan Areas
| High-Income, POC | Mid-Income, POC | Low-Income, POC | High-Income, White | Mid-Income, White | Low-Income, White | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| People | ||||||
| # of Pooled Census Tracts | 31 | 239 | 401 | 270 | 331 | 48 |
| Total Residents | 191,408 | 1,343,093 | 1,943,555 | 1,598,398 | 1,808,725 | 217,014 |
| Race/Ethnicity * | ||||||
| % Asian | 31 | 9 | 3 | 8 | 4 | 3 |
| % Black | 16 | 21 | 26 | 6 | 7 | 8 |
| % Latinx | 13 | 34 | 51 | 10 | 18 | 20 |
| % Native American | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.4 | 0.5 |
| % Multiracial | 3 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 |
| % White | 37 | 33 | 18 | 73 | 69 | 66 |
| Median Household Income ($000) * | $113 | $63 | $38 | $125 | $69 | $41 |
| Public High Schools * | ||||||
| # of Schools | 4 | 39 | 58 | 46 | 78 | 21 |
| Total Enrollment | 1,568 | 1,850 | 1,145 | 1,905 | 983 | 1,035 |
| Grade 12 Enrollment | 393 | 394 | 217 | 446 | 211 | 217 |
| # Meeting College Ready SAT Benchmark | 154 | 57 | 39 | 171 | 57 | 43 |
| % Free Reduced Lunch | 34 | 59 | 74 | 26 | 38 | 47 |
| Race/Ethnicity | ||||||
| % Asian | 25 | 5 | 3 | 8 | 2 | 1 |
| % Black | 28 | 25 | 32 | 11 | 7 | 11 |
| % Latinx | 24 | 49 | 55 | 26 | 25 | 31 |
| % Native American | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.4 | 0.6 | 0.9 | 0.6 |
| % White | 23 | 18 | 9 | 53 | 63 | 54 |
| School Type | ||||||
| 0/1 is a Regular School | 0.75 | 0.82 | 0.62 | 0.91 | 0.95 | 0.91 |
| 0/1 is a Magnet School | 0.00 | 0.05 | 0.17 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.05 |
| 0/1 is a Charter School | 0.25 | 0.13 | 0.21 | 0.09 | 0.05 | 0.04 |
Note: * indicated means across people or schools within each sub-metropolitan area. Schools that satisfied the following criteria were included in the sample: offers grades 9-12 and enrolls at least ten students in each grade; is not a special education school, alternative school, virtual school, or independent school; is an open status school and reports enrollment to the Federal Department of Education. Non-visited schools include only out-of-state schools in states that received at least one high school visit.
MSA Overview
Public High School Recruiting Visits by Sub-Metropolitan Areas
| Total | High-Income, POC | Mid-Income, POC | Low-Income, POC | High-Income, White | Mid-Income, White | Low-Income, White | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| University of Kansas | |||||||
| # of public high schools visited % of total visited schools | 32 | 1 3% | 4 13% | 0 0% | 23 72% | 4 13% | 0 0% |
| # of public high school visits * % of total public high school visits * | 48 | 2 4% | 4 8% | 0 0% | 36 75% | 6 13% | 0 0% |
| University of Georgia | |||||||
| # of public high schools visited % of total visited schools | 15 | 1 7% | 1 7% | 0 0% | 11 73% | 1 7% | 1 7% |
| # of public high school visits * % of total public high school visits * | 26 | 1 4% | 1 4% | 0 0% | 18 70% | 4 15% | 2 8% |
Note: * includes multiple visits to unique schools
University of Kansas
Descriptive Statistics for Public High Schools Visited and Not Visited
| High-Income, POC | Mid-Income, POC | Low-Income, POC | High-Income, White | Mid-Income, White | Low-Income, White | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | |
| # of Schools | 1 | 3 | 4 | 35 | 0 | 58 | 23 | 23 | 4 | 74 | 0 | 21 |
| Grade 12 Enrollment | 741 | 277 | 479 | 384 | - | 217 | 540 | 352 | 183 | 734 | - | 217 |
| # Meeting SAT Benchmark | 370 | 47 | 157 | 45 | - | 39 | 233 | 106 | 334 | 41 | - | 43 |
| Median Household Income ($000) | $138 | $104 | $62 | $66 | - | $34 | $121 | $114 | $63 | $69 | - | $45 |
| % Free Reduced Lunch | 17 | 39 | 44 | 61 | - | 74 | 23 | 29 | 21 | 39 | - | 47 |
| Enrollment by Race/Ethnicity | ||||||||||||
| % Asian | 26 | 25 | 9 | 5 | - | 3 | 9 | 7 | 7 | 1 | - | 1 |
| % Black | 12 | 33 | 17 | 26 | - | 32 | 8 | 13 | 10 | 7 | - | 11 |
| % Latinx | 18 | 22 | 40 | 50 | - | 55 | 25 | 26 | 22 | 25 | - | 31 |
| % Native American | 0.2 | 0.5 | 0.4 | 0.5 | - | 0.4 | 0.5 | 0.6 | 0.5 | 0.9 | - | 0.6 |
| % White | 41 | 17 | 32 | 18 | - | 9 | 55 | 50 | 58 | 64 | - | 54 |
| School Type | ||||||||||||
| 0/1 is a Regular School | 1.00 | 0.67 | 1.00 | 0.80 | - | 0.62 | 1.00 | 0.83 | 1.00 | 0.95 | - | 0.91 |
| 0/1 is a Magnet School | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.06 | - | 0.17 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | - | 0.05 |
| 0/1 is a Charter School | 0.00 | 0.33 | 0.00 | 0.14 | - | 0.21 | 0.00 | 0.17 | 0.00 | 0.05 | - | 0.05 |
Note: Totals are for unique school visits and will not match multiple visit totals in metro overview. Schools that satisfied the following criteria were included in the sample: offers grades 9-12 and enrolls at least ten students in each grade; is not a special education school, alternative school, virtual school, or independent school; is an open status school and reports enrollment to the Federal Department of Education.
University of Kansas
Map
University of Georgia
Descriptive Statistics for Public High Schools Visited and Not Visited
| High-Income, POC | Mid-Income, POC | Low-Income, POC | High-Income, White | Mid-Income, White | Low-Income, White | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | Visit | Nonvisit | |
| # of Schools | 1 | 3 | 1 | 38 | 0 | 58 | 11 | 35 | 1 | 76 | 1 | 20 |
| Grade 12 Enrollment | 113 | 486 | 557 | 389 | - | 217 | 486 | 433 | 1,401 | 196 | 582 | 199 |
| # Meeting SAT Benchmark | N/A* | 154 | 202 | 53 | - | 39 | 235 | 150 | 700 | 48 | 149 | 38 |
| Median Household Income ($000) | $103 | $122 | $68 | $66 | - | $34 | $126 | $115 | $62 | $69 | $43 | $45 |
| % Free Reduced Lunch | 15 | 40 | 49 | 59 | - | 74 | 18 | 29 | 14 | 38 | 41 | 47 |
| Enrollment by Race/Ethnicity | ||||||||||||
| % Asian | 51 | 17 | 8 | 5 | - | 3 | 8 | 8 | 13 | 1 | 3 | 2 |
| % Black | 7 | 34 | 20 | 25 | - | 32 | 7 | 12 | 12 | 7 | 7 | 11 |
| % Latinx | 22 | 21 | 41 | 49 | - | 55 | 21 | 27 | 14 | 25 | 60 | 29 |
| % Native American | 0.2 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.5 | - | 0.4 | 0.5 | 0.6 | 0.6 | 0.9 | 0.4 | 0.6 |
| % White | 18 | 25 | 27 | 18 | - | 9 | 60 | 50 | 57 | 63 | 28 | 55 |
| School Type | ||||||||||||
| 0/1 is a Regular School | 0.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 0.82 | - | 0.62 | 1.00 | 0.91 | 1.00 | 0.95 | 1.00 | 0.90 |
| 0/1 is a Magnet School | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.05 | - | 0.17 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.05 |
| 0/1 is a Charter School | 1.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.13 | - | 0.21 | 0.00 | 0.09 | 0.00 | 0.05 | 0.00 | 0.05 |
Note: Totals are for unique school visits and will not match multiple visit totals in metro overview. Schools that satisfied the following criteria were included in the sample: offers grades 9-12 and enrolls at least ten students in each grade; is not a special education school, alternative school, virtual school, or independent school; is an open status school and reports enrollment to the Federal Department of Education.
University of Georgia
Map
Summary of findings
Sub-Metropolitan Spatial Redlining in Public University Recruitment
Schools within white communities are more likely to receive a recruiting visit than schools within Communities of Color
- Across high, mid, low income levels
- Exception: mid income communities in LA (although not proportional)
Racial biases intensify with multiple visits
- Schools within white communities are more likely to receive multiple visits and visits from multiple universities
Recruiting reinforces the geography of unequal college opportunity
- Visits are clustered in predominantly high and mid income White suburbs (i.e., "College Oases")
- Spatial redlining of Latinx and Black communities within MSA centers across income levels (i.e., "College Deserts")
Implications
Policy, practice, and advocacy
Policy: Greater consideration of (critical) "supply side" scholarship in policy discourse
- Scholarship aimed at changing the behavior of students has dominated policy discourse
- Example: information asymmetries
- Scaled "under-matching" study found null effects
- Study on financial aid "shopping sheets" found null effects
Practice: recruiting can circumvent geography of unequal college opportunity but...
- Current efforts are based on college going process of highly affluent white students
- e.g., large college fairs, blocked-out visits, evening events, "coffee chats"
- Administrators and practitioners need to enact practices that are created to mitigate barriers to reaching and connecting with low-income students and Students of Color
Advocacy
- Under-visited high schools can reshape and demand new recruiting practices by universities
- Leverage the strengths of communities (talent, funds of knowledge, culture, family, local, loyalty, service)
- University professionals and faculty can hold universities accountable
Acknowledgements
EMRA Research Team: Crystal Han, Sean Beaton, Patricia Martin
American Educational Research Association (dissertation grant)
Sunnyside High School Administration Team
- Superintendent Steve Holmes
- Principal Ricky Torres
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